Early American Music
1620-1869
A Brief Review
Prepared for
ARIZONA STATE
MUSIC TEACHERS CONVENTION
Gammage Auditorium
October 10, 11, 1964
By Hazel Harvey Quaid
Early Colonial Music
Every early colonist brought in his own heart his kind of music according to his religion: Catholic, Jewish, Protestant, or if he were an adventurer, wholesome or not so wholesome tunes from those heard in the street or theater. In his introduction to the "Skill of Music" John Playford, publisher, composer, and theorist of London, writes: "The first and chief Use of Musick is for the Service and Praise of God, whose gift it is. The second Use is for the Solace of Men, which as it is agreeable unto Nature, so it is allow'd by God as a temporal Blessing to recreate and cheer men after long study and weary labor in their Vocations." Noting regretfully: "our late and solemn Musick, both vocal and instrumental, is now justl'd out of Esteem by the new Corants and Jiggs of Foreigners," he finishes with: "I believe it (Musick) is an helper both to good and evil, and will therefore honour it when it moves to Vertue, and shall beware of it when it would flatter into Vice." This was the Puritan stand, also.
Episcopalians and Catholics had organs in their churches as soon as it was practical. Kings Chapel in Boston was bequeathed one in 1713 by Thomas Brattle; Bruton Parish Church of Williamsburg, Virginia had one in 1752 when the chancel was enlarged and the organ brought from England; and the Mystics of the Wissahickon had an organ sent from Germany to Pennsylvania before 1703. Dr. Christopher Witt, an Englishman who joined the Mystics in 1704 built his own organ, which is said to be the first privately owned in the colonies of North America.
German members of the Moravian Brethren distinguished their settlement in Pennsylvania by an intense musical life. Hymn singing was a social as well as religious activity with them. The famous Bach Choir of Bethlehem has come down from the first "Singstunde" held there in 1742. Those pioneers were spiritual descendants of the Unitas Fratrem of Moravia and Bohemia, a sect, which maintains the honor of having published the first hymn book among Protestant churches. “Church Memorials" of the earliest years in Bethlehem indicate the steady use of instruments. The colonies' first Symphony Orchestra, the Collegium Musicum produced in 1744. The Moravian Trombone Choir organized in 1754 claims the longest continuous existence of any musical group in the United States. Tradition has it that once when the Trombone Choir announced the death of a member which was customary, approaching Indians heard and were frightened away, declaring the Great Spirit protects the white man.
JOHN ANTES born to this rich heritage in 1740 composed the first chamber music written by an American. He was entered in Moravian Boys School in Bethlehem at twelve. He made a violin in 1759 and several years later a viola and cello. The violin and viola are still in playing condition. From 1765-69 he was an apprentice watchmaker in Germany. He was ordained in the Moravian ministry in 1769 and sent to Egypt, the first American missionary. While convalescing from a ruthless beating by an extortionist he composed three trios. In 1781 he returned to Europe and became manager of the Moravian Church at Fulneck, England, where he served twenty-five years. He retired with his wife to Bristol and died there in 1811. His works include twenty-five sacred anthems and arias and twelve chorales written for the glory of the Lord. His composition may have been influenced by Handel and Haydn who was a personal friend. The spirit in which Moravian sacred music was written accounts for its great appeal to all Protestant churches today.
The Shakers had their system of musical notation, supposedly revealed to Mother Ann by inspiration. The Ephrata Cloister used their own homespun harmony, the scale having been divided by Conrad Beissel into "master" notes belonging to the common chord and all others "servant" notes. The Methodists under Wesleyan influence, John Wesleyan's especially, were torn between the more traditional dignified hymns of the Anglican Church and the newer Evangelical Hymnody which was being fostered by Revivalism and the Afro-American religious music that would bloom in the nineteenth century. In California the Indians begged the Friars for singing time and enjoyed playing in orchestras in the Catholic missions established by Father Serra. In Mission San Juan Bautista an English three barrel organ (if still in repair) plays thirty tunes none among them sacred: Spanish Waltz, College Hornpipe, Lady Campbell's Reel, etc. It was given them by Vancouver, an English explorer.
To be appointed precentor in a New England Church was a signal honor. Singing without books or instruments by way of imitation, precentor fashion, created real difficulty even if the precentor started in the right key, had true pitch, and a big voice because audiences were composed of individuals, who might be off pitch but vocal, impatient but willing to fill in with thrills or turns to ease the waiting for slower singers, all of which added more than syncopation to the whole effect. Controversy over the remedy arose. Psalm singing was described by one critic, "Jeoffrey Chanticleer" who may have been James Franklin thus: "Singing appears to be rather a confused Noise made up of reading, squeaking, and grumbling." To learn to sing by note, "regulated singing," became imperative if accuracy and individual responsibility were desired results.
Dr. Isaac Watts, an English divine, transformed the meter of the Psalms, even objecting to their content as unChristlike, and started the trend toward "man-made" hymns. In New England pioneer hymn writers sprang up from every walk in life. Music was part of every household but to make it a profession meant dying in the poorhouse. Records show that men from every occupation were pioneers in music: Supply Belcher, tavern-keeper; WILLIAM BILLINGS, tanner; Amos Bull, storekeeper; Amos Doolittle, silversmith; Oliver Holden, carpenter; Jeremiah Ingals, cooper; Justin Morgan, horse breeder; Daniel Read, comb maker; Abraham Wood, fuller or dresser of cloth; Andrew Law, A.B. M.A. minister. Oliver Holden's "Coronation" is in most hymn books of today and sung as well. Two of Daniel Read's appear in the Mennonite Hymnal which can be bought in shaped notes or round (1962).
WILLIAM BILLINGS' "Chester" was the popular marching tune of the American Revolution. He wrote his own words, expressed himself usually in "fuging tunes" musically to be sung after this conception found "In His Thoughts on Music": Suppose a Company of Forty People, Twenty of them should sing the Bass, the other Twenty should be divided according to the discretion of the Company into the upper Parts, six or seven of the deepest voices should sing the Ground Bass . . . which if well sung together with the upper Parts, is most Majestic; and so exceeding Grand as to cause the floor to tremble, as I myself have often experienced. . . . Much caution should be used in singing a Solo, in my opinion Two or Three at most are enough to sing it well, it should be sung as soft as an echo, in order to keep the Hearers in an agreeable suspense till all the parts join together in a full chorus, as smart and strong as possible." "Fuging tunes" were tunes in which vocal passages were imitated with the same notes, the parts following after each other and all ending together in harmony. In American history Billings' name will always be associated with "fuging tunes" because he popularized and created a love for part singing with them.
With no formal education probably after fourteen when his father died, he made the most of what he had. Rev. William Bentley of Salem wrote of him shortly after his death: "He was a singular man of moderate size, short of one leg, with one eye, without any address, and with an uncommon negligence of person. Still he spoke and sang and thought as a man above the common abilities."
In "The New England Psalm Singer," Billings seeks a balance between Art and Nature and writes: " . . . the more Art is displayed the more Nature is decorated. And in some forms of Composition, there is dry Study required, and Art very requisite. For instance, in a Fuge (sic), where the parts come in after each other, with the same notes; but even there Art is subservient to Genius, for Fancy goes first, and strikes out the Work roughly, and Art comes after, and polishes it over."
Gentlemen Amateurs and Professional Emigrants had one thing in common, love of music; they were a long way apart in social status. Professional musicians found themselves in debt unless they supplemented their performances with teaching or some other means of earning a livelihood. Gentlemen amateurs made of music a recreation. Thomas Jefferson and Patrick Henry played violin duets. Benjamin Franklin was our first music critic and the inventor of the Glassychord. Lt. Governor John Penn of Pennsylvania was a good violinist and gave private chamber music concerts every Sunday evening in his home in Philadelphia. Francis Hopkinson was the first American composer whose works have been preserved and identified as his. A notice in the Pennsylvania Gazette in May, 1961 mentions an “elegant” Anthem by James Lyon performed in the morning of the same day as an “Ode written and set to music in very grand and masterly Taste” by Francis Hopkinson performed in the afternoon.
James Lyon’s Urbania, a collection of Psalm tunes, Anthems and Hymns, ran through three editions. He was ordained to the Presbyterian Ministry in 1764, having taken an M.A. at Princeton in 1762, then sent to Nova Scotia, and later to Machias, Maine where he lived the remainder of his life. Francis Hopkinson, a young lawyer by profession, amused himself as did other gentlemen amateurs, playing the organ and harpsichord. He dabbled in verse as well. He was a delegate to the Continental Congress, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, and took an active part in the Constitutional Convention of 1787. His “Sevan Songs” which contains an eighth added after the title page was engraved he dedicated to George Washington in a letter in which he claimed credit for being the first native American composer. He sent a copy to Thomas Jefferson for Miss Jefferson. Jefferson's reply spoke of the pathos of the eighth song The Traveler Benighted and Lost and the tears in the younger daughter's eyes as the older played it on the harpsichord.
The Negroes came to this new world singing, dancing, and drumming. They brought with them their own musical instrument, the banyar, made from a large gourd and four strings which after several changes came to be known as the banjo. They sang about many things as they worked using the motion involved in the work, hand-clapping, or foot-thumping for rhythmic accompaniment. Music and the dance were closely related to religious rituals in Africa. In song the call-and-response pattern, leader and chorus, characterized the music of Negroes in West Africa and became a definite part of work songs in America. Complications of rhythm are the result of the "metronomic sense" of the African. He was free to choose any rhythmic pattern but he must meet the first beat at exactly the same split second as his fellow performer. Results were syncopated effects when only duple rhythms were employed. Duple and triple together produced emotional frustration. The diatonic scale and simple harmony African and European music had in common. When the Gospel message reached the slaves, Negro spirituals were born for their intrinsic comfort and inspiration. They express the slave's faith in another world and patience with this one. The white spirituals of revivalism became a contributing element also.
In 1762 the oldest music society in America was founded and named "The St. Cecelia Society" in Charleston, South Carolina. Before the Revolution Charleston became the mecca for emigrating professional musicians from the old world. Music in the colonies at that time hardly afforded one a living. If a paid musician did not please his audience he was pelted with garbage. Gentlemen amateurs often filled in on orchestral programs and requested protection from any manner of insult because their service was free. In 1737 Charles Theodore Pachelbel presented a cantata to a receptive audience in Charleston. The year before he had played the first concert in New York of which any record exists. He found the southern city a better place to live and died there in 1750.
After the Revolution, Philadelphia became the leading cultural center. Boston and New York became rivals later. General Washington always attended plays and concerts if possible. His step-daughter, Nellie Custis, took music lessons of ALEXANDER REINAGLE, an English musician. Chase says of the two: "The soldier and musician had much in common, for each was a leader in his own field, a man of character and integrity who commanded respect from all. Reinagle before his orchestra was а counterpart of Washington before his army. And sometimes an eighteenth century theater could be almost as dangerous as a battlefield.” Reinagle was born in Portsmouth, England in April just a few months after Mozart. Young Reinagle became an excellent pianist and a good violinist. In the new world he was Musical Manager of The New Theatre in Chestnut Street, the building of which he supervised; he arranged and adapted musical scores for plays in the Theatre. These ranged from the two-act comic opera "The Volunteers,” to a five-act historical tragedy, "Pizarro.” Little of his music has been preserved. The four Philadelphia Sonatas are in the Congressional Library and each has three movements, fast-slow-fast, except the first. The influence of C.P.E. Bach and Haydn – no better available – is evident but they are not imitations. After he moved to Baltimore he worked on an oratorio based on parts of Milton's "Paradise Lost" the manuscript of which disappeared from his grandson's library after his death.
Raynor Taylor, Reinagle's co-worker and former teacher had the reputation of being the finest organist in America, famous for his masterly improvisations. He stepped from the "Olio,” vaudeville in Baltimore to be organist at St. Peters Church in Philadelphia without public renunciation, at least.
The Carrs, father Joseph and two sons, Benjamin, who edited the Music Journal founded by his father, and Thomas were energetic successful dealers and publishers with stores in New York, Baltimore, and Philadelphia. Benjamin was a singer of note, a composer of an opera, "The Archers," two numbers from which were published in the Music Journal and preserved for us. Benjamin, born in London and Taylor from London organized the Musical Fund Society, one of the most important organizations in America. Three names, Reinagle, Taylor, and Carr focused attention on Philadelphia.
In New York the leading professional musician was JAMES HEWITT who was the composer and arranger of operas for the Old American Company. His social standing was high like Reinagle's and his sentimental songs were popular. His opera, "Tammany" produced under the auspices of The Tammany Society, then the center of anti-federalist feeling, was denounced as "a wretched thing" by the federalists. The music having been lost, we can not judge for ourselves. Descriptive music was popular and James Hewitt in his piano sonata titled "The Battle of Trenton" published in 1797 and dedicated to George Washington, whose picture graced the cover, undertook to picture in music such episodes as: The Army in Motion – Attack – Cannons – Bombs – Flight of The Hessians – General Confusion – Hessians Surrender As Prisoners – Grief of Americans for Lost Comrades – ? – General Rejoicing. Several of Hewitt's six children became prominent musicians.
Next to Hewitt were Victor Pelissier and John Christopher Moller. Pelissier, the most prominent of French emigrants, composed several operas of The Old American Company. Moller who played Franklin's Harmonica or Glassychord often in concert, composed a pleasing "Sinfonia," Stringed Quartet, and a Rondo for piano.
William Selby, English-born, was Boston's professional organist, harpsichordist, and composer. Peter Albrecht Van Hagen of Rotterdam who had settled in Charleston before the Revolution moved to New York first and then settled in Boston where he opened a music store, conducted the orchestra at Haymarket Theatre, and served as organist at Stone Chapel. His compositions include A Federal Overture and A Funeral Dirge on the Death of General Washington, one of many such musical tributes to the Father of our Country.
Lowell Mason's name marks the beginning of trends: toward European music, away from the music of the pioneer Americans, toward secular music, away from sacred music; toward emphases on standards of performance, professional music schools, musical conventions, and "scientific progress.” Mason believed children could and should be taught to sing just as they were taught to read. Through The Boston Academy where children over seven years of age could have free lessons if they promised regular attendance for a year, he aroused public opinion and won eventually music for every child in the public school and became the first Superintendent of Music in an American Public School. He composed mostly hymns, anthems, and school songs. Among the hymns, The Missionary Hymn, "From Greenland's Icy Mountains," "Nearer My God to Thee," and "My Faith Looks Up to Thee" are easily found in books of today. He compiled many collections of songs, each catering to both conservative and progressive taste, each borrowing ideas and tunes from older Singing School Books, even Psalmody, the fasola folk as well as revivalists so that every one found something worth buying for himself. He was the first American Musician to make a fortune out of music.
Thomas Hastings is remembered for "Toplady," his setting of "Rock of Ages, Cleft for Me." William B. Bradbury was one of the first American Musicians to study in Europe. Mason, Hastings, Bradbury, and George F. Root taught in the Normal Institutes, scientifically improved
versions of the old singing schools. Bradbury's best known hymns are "He Leadeth Me" and "Sweet Hour of Prayer." Isaac Baker Woodbury was another who studied in Europe a year, taught in Boston, organized a group, The New Hampshire and Vermont Musical Association, and became its conductor. He traveled through New England with The Bay State Glee Club. Later he went to New York as a choir master and Editor of the New York Musical Review. Ill health encouraged him to try Europe a year but he died soon after his return. Two collections of his were designed for Southern use, "The Harp of the South" (1853) and "The Casket" (1855).
George F. Root's reputation rests on secular rather than sacred songs. During the Civil War struggle "Just Before the Battle, Mother," "The Vacant Chair," "The Battle Cry of Freedom," and "Tramp, Tramp, Tramp" were most successful. "The Battle Cry of Freedom" was in the repertoire of the singing Hutchinsons who presented it throughout the North. Henry Clay Work, also, is known for his Civil War songs, "Kingdom Coming" and "Marching Through Georgia". He composed the temperance song, "Come Home, Father" and the sentimental one, "Grandfather's Clock."
Henry Russell, espouser of causes, declared that singing his songs sold them. Dwight in his Music Journal had called him a "charlatan." At any rate his songs sold in the hundreds of thousands and the Music Journal's circulation was five hundred. Most popular were "Woodman, Spare That Tree," "A Life On the Ocean Wave," "The Gambler's Wife," and "The Maniac." John Hutchinson spent his last dollar for a copy of "The Maniac" which proved an excellent investment for the group. John, (the maniac), put on the performance to the delight and horror of audiences. After several successful concerts in Boston and elsewhere the Hutchinson company had Oliver Ditson publish some of their own songs: "The Snow Storm," "Jamie's On the Stormy Sea," "The Grave of Bonaparte," and "King Alcohol." In New York's Broadway Tabernacle, they sang their theme song, "The Old Granite State" to the rousing revival tune, "The Old Church Yard," "King Alcohol," "We Are Happy and Free," and "We Have Come From the Mountains." In New York they met George P. Morris, the poet, and set several of his poems to music, among them, "My Mother's Bible." Russell's "Gambler's Wife" gave Abby Hutchinson a chance to star as soloist and Russell told them he thought they were the best singers in America. In 1845 they toured England and Ireland. They espoused in America such causes as Temperance, Women's Sufferage, and Abolition. They won approval from both country and urban audiences. Instead of the banjo and bones of minstrelsy they were accompanied by violin and cello and in dress and manner were discreet and genteel.
John Hill Hewitt, son of the emigrant, James Hewitt, wrote his own poems and music. Once he won first prize away from Edgar Allan Poe for which Poe never quite forgave the judges. He was active as editor and publisher in Baltimore. His mother, daughter of Sir John King of the British Army, was averse to his choosing music as a profession. In Military Academy he studied little else but music with the band director and the result was, he was not allowed to graduate with his class. Then he joined a theatrical troupe managed by his father which failed, he read for the law, published a newspaper, and composed and taught music. “All Quiet Along the Potomac Tonight" was his hit song in the Civil War. He wrote over three hundred songs which earned him the title, “Father of the American Ballad,” and some oratorios of which the best known is "Jephtha." In his own words we may read: "Music has always been, and still is, my frailty.... I studied it as an art and a science but only for the sake of an accomplishment, never thinking that I should use it as the means of my support.” He resented the chasm which was narrowing, between the native-born musician and the foreign import as well as the earlier stigma attached to a professional musician as opposed to the gentleman amateur. He remarked the fact that the publisher gets rich on the brains of the composer.
The fasola folk were carrying to the western frontiers the singing schools of old Bill Billings' day while snobbish urban magazines made sport of common Yankee singing schools, kept alive by Yankee singing masters. Rural communities found the fasola system more to their liking than the European do re mi. Another device they used and clung to was the shaped note. Southern and Western compilers used the lines which Andrew Law had discarded and adopted the change of order in shaped notes which Smith and Little had advocated, retaining the staff. William Walker of South Carolina was first to switch to the seven-character system in 1866, advancing this argument, “Would any parent, having seven children, think of calling them by only four names?” In “Christian Harmony”, his own seven-shape system appears. The collections published by the fasola folk contained more folk humans, religious ballads, revival spirituals, and fuging pieces that European tunes, an occasional Mason tune of even Handel. The urban books, of course, held more modern compositions, Mason’s, European, and a few of the others. The colonial idea of the tenor carrying the melody instead of the soprano prevailed in the hinterland, also. Harmony was of a different structure and most songs were arranged for three parts. The “better music” advocates took over the official church hymnals.
All accounts record the fact that Revival and Camp-meeting crowds sang loudly. Samuel F. Asbury, direct descendant of America’s pioneer circuit rider, recalling the old-time revival singing of his youth, said: “The immediate din was tremendous; at a hundred yards it was beautiful; and at a distance of a half mile it was magnificent.”
Repetition and improvisation were elemental in the making of Negro Spirituals. The words might be repeated with Hallelujah at the end of each line or each line might be improvised by a leader and develop a story, ballad fashion, or become a simple call and response, the response being repetitive in nature. Always words were brief, often showing a poetic tendency, and the music had a rhythmic pattern, if only a repetitive one. Actual descriptions of Negro-singing on plantations are few before the Civil War, one as early as 1838. They sang in unison not in parts as is the European way, the rhythm often suited to the work they were doing. Yet the individuality and freedom of each singer was remarkably suggestive of unconventional polyphony.
In 1843 four white men in blackface, wearing white trousers, striped calico shirts, and blue calico coats with long swallowtails, appeared in the Bowery Amphitheatre in New York City as the Virginia Minstrels They were Daniel Decatur Emmett (violin), who was to compose “Dixie” and win fame past our day, Billie Whitlock (banjo), Frank Brower (“bones”), and Dick Pelham (tambourine). They were the first co-ordinated group, Single entertainers like George Washington Dixon and “Daddy” Rice had performed in blackface since the 1820s. The Ethiopian business prospered much to the chagrin of advocates of the general Soirees Musicales and Italian operatic and other European vocal selections. The minstrel songs were often similar to the folk songs and curiously, minstrel songs became folk songs, and later completed the cycle as they were reworked. “Hey, Get Along, Jose” and “Long Time Ago” are two that might be cited.
On July 4, 1826 an American minstrel was born who from his very youth fought in his own musically inclined mind the battle between “genteel” and “common” music. Born into a middle-class highly respectable family, he could not grow up naturally into show-business. Music was not a suitable profession; if one followed it, he must write sentimental ballads and “elegant” songs to be rendered by sentimental and elegant young ladies. STEPHEN COLLINS FOSTER left off his name on his Ethiopian melodies for fear it would sully his reputation “as a writer of another style of music.” When he wrote E. P. Christy in 1852 that he had decided “to pursue the Ethiopian business without fear or shame," he had won his first and greatest victory to overcome the fear of not appearing respectable. Hastings had voiced his criticism against adults allowing little children to hear "Old Folks At Home" in Sunday School, in the magazine, Musical Review and Choral Advocate, of which he was editor. Hastings called it "something from the lowest dregs of music." John S. Dwight in his Journal of Music asserted that such tunes have a charm only skin-deep and "are not popular in the sense of musically inspiring. but that such a melody breaks out every now and then, like a morbid irritation of the skin.”
Foster’s life was tragically short and its struggle with conformity waged well until physically and spiritually spent, he wrote many mediocre and sentimental songs which have reached the same oblivion as those of the “better music” advocates. Had he not written the big four: “Old Folks At Home,” “My Old Kentucky Home, Good Night,” “Old Black Josem” and “Massa’s In de Cold Ground” the world might never have known him. The first and last are in dialect but the simplicity of the form and harmony and the pure English of “My Old Kentucky Home, Good Night” and “Old Black Joe” were Foster’s contribution to American Folk Songs. Refined simplicity appealed to both the rural and urban American.
STEPHEN COLLINS FOSTER and LOUIS MOREAU GOTTSCHALK were both prodigies but Louis had the advantages of an education in Paris, France. In his graduation recital he was heard by Chopin who said as he took his hand, “My child, I predict that you will become the king of pianists.” When Gottschalk came home to the United States, Phineas Barnum after a concert given in the ballroom of Niblo’s Garden offered him a $20,000 contract plus expenses for one year. Gottschalk refused on the advice of his father whose spirit rebelled at the thought of his son on exhibition. Jenny Lind’s concert in Castle Garden had taken place a little more than two years before on September 11, 1850. Barnum heard Gottschalk on February 11, 1853. In the winter of 1855-56 Gottschalk gave eighty concerts in New York alone and in the years 1862-63 he gave over eleven hundred concerts in Canada and United States.
The rhythms of the Spanish habenara and the Negro cakewalk met and fused in Gottschalk's compositions. His improvisations on the National Air of every country in which he played won him ovations. Wherever he happened to be he was always willing to give concerts for charity or other projects for public benefit. Anyone who asked about his country merited his time and attention. In Brazil he had planned a large pageant involving eight hundred persons. Struck down by malaria earlier from which he was not entirely recovered he conducted the Marche Triumphale into which he had woven the Brazilian National Air; receiving ovation after ovation, he was too weak to conduct the second program and died two weeks later the morning of December 18, 1869 after much suffering. He was the best ambassador to South America we have ever had.
Gottschalk wrote many piano pieces which have been played by pianists of our time, John Kirkpatrick and Eugene List. He was acutely conscious of the Civil War’s importance to the Union’s preservation, and sympathized with the North’s purpose and effort. In 1863 or 1862 he wrote an allegory prophesying the rescue of the Union by Northern armies which he called “The Union.” Kirkpatrick has made it possible to hear Gottschalk’s “The Night of the Tropics,” a two-movement symphony, by arranging it for two pianos. Another large work, “Cuban Country Scenes,” for vocal soloists (soprano, tenor, baritone and bass) and orchestra was inspired by the tropics which he loved so well.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Chase, Gilbert, "America's Music" New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. 1955
Walters, Raymond, "The Bethlehem Bach Choir." New York: Houghton-Mifflin Company, 1918
Official Guide Book, "Colonial Williamsburg." Williamsburg: Civil Center 1963
"Life of John Antes.” Musical Quarterly: Oct. 1956
Julian, John, “Dictionary of Hymnology." New York: Dover Publications, Inc. 1957
Derthick, W. M. “A Manual of Music.” Chicago: The "Manual" Publishing Company 1889
Howard, John Tasker, “Stephen Foster, America’s Troubadour.” New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company 1935
Newspaper Clippings
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